Educating Minds to Question: Understanding and Teaching Critical Thinking

8 August, 2025

Author Dr Will Zoppellini

Picture a child in your classroom or at your dinner table. Her name is Nia. She is bright, thoughtful, and endlessly curious. Lately, her questions have started to make you pause. “Why do I have to learn this way if it doesn’t make sense to me?” “If people believe different things, how do we know who’s right?”

At first, you smile at the questions, but then you realise these aren’t passing curiosities. They’re signs of a mind starting to question, reaching out for something more. Indicators of a child who’s paying attention, and beginning to reason, to challenge, and to wonder. This is where critical thinking begins.

Our role is vital during these instances. How we respond will impact whether Nia’s curiosity sharpens into discernment or fades into compliance. It will shape how Nia will make decisions, reason, vote, argue, love, and lead. Will we encourage these questions with space for reflection, reasoning, and opportunities to think independently? Or will we default to the response that quietly shuts down the dialogue… “Because that’s just how it is.”

Our biggest challenge is that in a world overflowing with information, opinions, and persuasive noise, our children aren’t always taught how to think. They’re taught what to think. Facts. Formulas. Finish lines. Memorise this. Recite that. Pass the test.

Critical thinking is widely recognised as one of the most essential skills in education and life¹. The ability to pause, reflect, weigh evidence and consider other perspectives is essential to promote thoughtful judgment in uncertain times.

In this post (the first in a series) I’m exploring this concept. What it is, why it matters, the debates on teaching it, and how to nurture it.

If you’ve ever wondered how to raise or teach a child who questions the world thoughtfully, engages with ideas humbly, and solves problems creatively, then this is for you. This isn’t just theory, today the coffee comes with an invitation. To teach not just what to think, but how to think, to educate minds to question, not just fill them.

Let’s begin.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Among researchers, educators, and leaders across education systems worldwide, critical thinking is consistently recognised as one of the most essential skills for learners². It’s regularly highlighted as a key indicator of high-quality learning, yet there remains ongoing debate about how best to define it¹. Let’s trace back to the start to understand how this evolved.

Educational philosopher John Dewey was one of the earliest advocates for critical thinking in schools. In his 1910 work How We Think³, Dewey expressed that reflective thinking is the foundation of education. He saw critical thinking as a disciplined self-regulated process of reflection, beginning with a problem and progressing through analysis, inference, and judgment. Later, Edward Glaser’s pioneering research⁴ in the 1940s reinforced this view, arguing that education must do more than transmit facts, it must cultivate the ability to evaluate and interpret those facts critically¹. He defined critical thinking as involving three key elements: a disposition to engage in thinking and problem solving, knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry, and skill in applying those methods.

Contemporary definitions of critical thinking vary across fields. Some authors simply call it⁵ “the art of thinking about thinking”. But perhaps the most influential modern contribution is from Peter Facione⁶, who led the American Philosophical Association’s Delphi Panel. Their definition (*available in full in the dropdown sidebar) offers a comprehensive account of the skills involved.

Crucially, the Delphi Panel stressed that critical thinking involves both cognitive skills and affective dispositions. A student may be able to think critically, but without curiosity, open-mindedness, or confidence, they may not use those skills. Developing critical thinkers, then, requires attention to both skills and dispositions^1,6.

While definitions vary, most agree on one central concept especially in education:

American Philosophical Association definition

We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit.

“Critical thinking is the active, intentional process of questioning, evaluating, and improving one’s thinking in order to make reasoned decisions, solve problems, and understand complex ideas.”

Why It Matters

Critical thinking is the process we rely on when faced with a complex problem, a difficult decision, or a wave of conflicting information. Rather than react impulsively or accept the first answer, a critical thinker slows down. They analyse the problem breaking it into parts, seeking out relevant information, and review the evidence^1,2. Interdisciplinary by nature, this skill allows a child to make connections, evaluate complex issues, and design solutions⁷.

This isn’t an academic tool, it’s a foundation for democratic citizenship and personal agency. John Dewey believed that for a democracy to function, its citizens must be able to evaluate claims, weigh consequences, and make decisions that go beyond instinct or ideology¹. That belief feels even more urgent today. Young people are growing up in a digital world flooded with opinions, algorithms, and persuasive noise. Without critical thinking, they are vulnerable to misinformation, manipulation, and polarisation.

Critical thinking also prepares learners to take on the global challenges awaiting them such as climate change, inequality, shifting economies, and new technologies.

It’s no surprise, that critical thinking has been linked to success in school, especially in tasks that require deeper understanding, creativity, and long-term retention. Learners who think critically tend to engage more, ask better questions, and take greater ownership of their learning.

However, under current education systems built around standardised testing and narrowly defined achievement, critical thinking isn’t always prioritised, or dare I say, possible. That’s a tension I’ll explore more fully in a future post.

Characteristics of Critical thinkers

Acknowledge personal limitations.
See problems as exciting challenges.
Have understanding as a goal.
Use evidence to make judgments.
Are interested in others’ ideas.
Are skeptical of extreme views.
Think before acting, avoiding emotionalism.
Keep an open mind Engage in active listening

Teaching Critical Thinking: A Longstanding Educational Debate

Similar to its definition, there is no universally accepted way to develop critical thinking in education². The debate can be condensed to two schools of thought.

The first argues that critical thinking involves abstract, transferable skills such as analysing arguments, identifying logical misconceptions, and evaluating evidence. These can be applied across contexts. Scholars like Ennis⁸, Siegel⁹, and psychologist Anita Woolfolk¹⁰ support this view, suggesting that higher-order thinking involves consciously applying strategies to novel problems, in new situations.

The second view argues that critical thinking is inseparable from subject knowledge. Students can only think critically when they have a strong understanding of the subject¹¹. Without that knowledge, reasoning lacks substance. So, critical thinking should be taught within subjects, not as a standalone skill. A student may be excellent at logical reasoning, but without a firm grasp of the content, that reasoning can lack depth or relevance.

More recent research suggests a middle ground². While some skills can transfer, they’re most powerful when rooted in meaningful content. Students need both the tools of critical thinking and the subject knowledge to apply them wisely.

Research by Dr Philip Abrami and colleagues¹² shows that critical thinking doesn’t develop automatically, even in rich learning environments. It must be explicitly taught. Students need to be shown what good thinking looks like. They need guided practice, time to reflect, and regular opportunities to stretch their reasoning in different ways.

Whatever the method, the research is clear that educators need support. Professional development, collaborative planning time, and access to high-quality, evidence-based resources are essential if critical thinking is to be more than an abstract goal.

The Paul–Elder Critical Thinking Framework

While there are several respected theories of critical thinking, one of the most influential in education is the Paul–Elder Critical Thinking Framework¹³. Developed by Richard Paul and Linda Elder, this model is widely recognised for offering a clear, usable structure that helps examine, improve, and reflect on thinking across subjects.

Paul and Elder’s work moves beyond abstract concepts to provide a concrete way of understanding what high-quality thinking looks like, and how it can be taught.

Their framework is built on three interconnected components:

Elements of Reasoning: These are the building blocks of our thought process. Every time we think, we do so with a purpose, guided by questions, shaped by assumptions, supported by evidence, framed by concepts, and leading to inferences, implications, and a particular point of view. Becoming aware of these elements helps learners break down their thinking and understand how it works.

Intellectual Standards: These are the criteria we use to assess the quality of our thinking. Standards such as clarity, accuracy, relevance, depth, logic, and fairness allow students to evaluate whether their reasoning holds up under scrutiny.

Intellectual Traits: These refer to the habits of mind that emerge through disciplined critical thinking. Traits like intellectual empathy, perseverance, integrity, and confidence in reason are not innate—they can be cultivated through intentional practice.

This model is valued not just for its theoretical grounding, but for its practical relevance. It gives educators a common language for discussing thinking and a framework for helping students become more thoughtful, reflective, and independent learners.

No Time to Wait: Tools for Critical Thinking Now

While researchers continue to debate the best way to teach critical thinking, children and are constantly making their way through education. Educators in all domains don’t have the luxury of waiting for academic consensus.

This highlights one of the disconnects between research and practice, theory moves slowly, but children grow up fast. Fortunately, there are some studies that have identified practical strategies^14,15,16, I have collated some key points to get started here:

Ask students to explain their reasoning, not just their answers.

Use open-ended questions: “What evidence supports that?” or “What might someone else think?”

Encourage students to identify assumptions or bias in a text.

Compare two sources and evaluate which is more trustworthy and why.

Create space for reflection: What would you do differently next time?

Model your own thought process out loud, especially when solving problems or making decisions.

Promote respectful disagreement and discussion.

Final thoughts

More than a century later, Dewey’s call remains urgent. In a world flooded with information, misinformation, and competing narratives, critical thinking is not a luxury, it’s a necessity.

By helping young people slow down, examine information, question assumptions, and make thoughtful decisions, we prepare them for life. It’s a responsibility we share as educators, parents, and community members.

Until next time, stay curious.

Dr Will Zoppellini

Another cup of theory? Discover more...

Developing a growth mindset: strategies around the world

rewriting the curriculum: how to teach thinking in every lesson

from clickbait to clarity: teaching kids to think critically about media

References

Abrami, P.C., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D.I., Wade, C.A. and Persson, T. 2015. Strategies for teaching students to think critically: A meta-analysis.Review of educational research, 85(2), pp.275-314.
Alsaleh, N.J. 2020. Teaching critical thinking skills: Literature review.Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 19(1), pp.21-39.
Dewey, J. 1910 How We Think, D. C Heath & Co Publishers: Chicago.
Glaser, E.M. 1941. An Experiment int he Development of Critical Thinking.Teachers College Contributions to Education,(843).
Ruggiero, V.R. 2004. The art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought.(No Title).
Facione, P. 1990. Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. The Delphi Report.
D & Dunn. D. 2022. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. Routledge.
Ennis, R. H. 1989. Critical thinking and subject specificity: Clarification and needed research. Educational Researcher, 18, 4–10.
Siegel, H. 1988. Educating reason: Rationality, critical thinking, and education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Woolfolk, A. E. 1998. Educational psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
McPeck, J. 1981. Critical thinking and education. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.
Abrami, P.C., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Surkes, M.A., Tamim, R. and Zhang, D. 2008. Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis.Review of educational research, 78(4), pp.1102-1134.
Paul, R. and Elder, L. 2019.The miniature guide to critical thinking concepts and tools. Rowman & Littlefield.
Kuhn, D., 1999. A developmental model of critical thinking.Educational researcher, 28(2), pp.16-46.
Elder, L. and Paul, R. 2020.Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. Rowman & Littlefield.
Murawski, L.M. 2014. Critical thinking in the classroom… and beyond.Journal of learning in higher education, 10(1), pp.25-30.